Posvätná ženskosť a autorita: rodová stratifikácia neošamanských skupín
Keywords:
neo-shamanism, gender, charisma, gender stratification, alternative medicine, CAMAbstract
In all western countries neo-shamanic groups share an important characteristic: statistics demonstrate significant prevalence of women. On the other side, neo-shamanic groups have an inner power dynamics related to gender. Some authors argue that in small religious groups without charismatic leaders strong personalities may appear charismatic and occupy positions of high status. Such gender dynamics have been historically associated with a positional advantage to males, although in such settings charisma might be decoupled from gender characteristics that tend to disadvantage women. The article presents the results of research conducted in a neo-shamanic group in Bratislava belonging to the FSS (Foundation for Shamanic Studies). In this environment charismatic authority has been for a long time absent: according to the concept of core shamanism, being a shaman does not mean to have a ‘gift ’ and a leader is usually represented as a person who is just more skilled than other group members. However, during recent decades there was a process of group stratifi cation that resulted in a formation of new groups and an emergence of male charismatic leaders who initially did not represent themselves as charismatic. Current male leaders’ self-representations usually refer to inner qualities related to a combination of the particular stereotypical gender characteristics. I argue that this image corresponds to (1) intuitive way of knowledge/ emotions related to female characteristics and (2) an active position of urban shamans related to male characteristics. This combination follows from the specific ideology of urban shamanism as a kind of alternative healing aimed at the transformation of individuals and the society.
References
Archer, J. a Lloyd, B., 2002. Sex and Gender. 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Atkinson, J., 2004. Shamanisms today. In: A. Znamenski, ed. 2004. Shamanism: Critical Concepts in Sociology (3. zv.). New York: Routledge Curzon, str. 115-133.
Astin, J. A., 2000. The Characteristics of CAM Users: A Complex Picture In: M. Kelner, B. Wellman, B. Pescosolido, a M. Saks, eds. 2000. Complementary Medicine - Challenge and Change. London: Routledge, str. 101-114.
Aupers, S. a Houtman, D., 2006. The Spiritual Revolution and the New Age Gender Puzzle: The Sacralisation of the Self in Late Modernity (1980-2000). [on-line] Dostupné z: http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/7576/ [5. 5. 2013].
Balzer, M. M., 1987. Behind shamanism: changing voices of Siberian Khanty cosmology and politics. Soc. Sci. Med. 24(12), str. 1085-93.
Boekhoven, J., 2011. Genealogies of Shamanism: Struggles for Power, Charisma and Authority. Eelde: Barkhuis.
Bourguignon, E., 1979. Psychological Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Bužeková, T., 2010. The Shaman’s Journeys between Emic and Etic: Representations of the Shaman in Neo-Shamanism. Anthropological Journal of European Studies, 19 (1): 116130.
Bužeková, T., 2011. Tradícia a experti. Legitimizácia neošamanskych praktík. In: T. Bužeková, D. Jerotijević, a M. Kanovský, 2011. Kognitívne vysvetlenie magických predstáv a praktík. Bratislava: Eterna Press, str. 75-130.
Bužeková, T., 2012. Modern faces of antient wisdom. In: M. Ferencová, C. Jahoda, H. Lukas, a G. Kiliánová, eds. 2012. Ritual, Confl ict and Consensus: Case Studies from Asia and Europe. Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaft en, str. 75-90.
Calef, S., 2009. Charting New Territory. Religion and “the Gender-Critical Turn”. Journal of Religion & Society, Supplement Series 5. Women, Gender, and Religion, str. 1-6.
Clark-King, E., 2004. Theology by Heart. Women, the Church and God. Peterborough: Epworth.
Coakley, J., 2006. Women, Men, and Spiritual Power. New York: Columbia University Press.
Frances, L., 1997. The Psychology of Gender Diff erences in Religion: A Review of Empirical Research. Religion, 27 (1): 68-96.
Francfort, H., Hamayon, R. a Bahn, P. eds., 2001. The Concept of Shamanism: Uses and Abuses. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.
Furnham, A. a Vincent, C., 2000. Reasons for Using CAM. In: M. Kelner, B. Wellman, B. Pescosolido a M. Saks, eds. 2000. Complementary and Alternative Medicine - Challenge and Change . London: Routledge, Taylor and Francis, str. 61-78.
Jacobs, J., 1991. Gender and Power in New Religious Movements. A Feminist Discourse on the Social Scientifi c Study of Religion. Religion, 21, str. 345-56.
Hamayon, R., 2007. Покончить с терминами «транс» и «экстаз» в исследованиях шаманизма [To End with the Terms “Trance” and “Ecstasy” in Shamanic Studies]. Этнографическое обозрение, 1, str. 6-18.
Harris, P. a Rees, R., 2000. The Prevalence of Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use Among the General Population: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 8, str. 88-96.
Hollimon, S. E., 2001. The gendered peopling of North America: Addressing the antiquity of systems of multiple genders. In: N. Price, ed. 2001. The Archaeology of Shamanism. London: New York: Routledge, str. 123–134.
Charitonova, V., Pimenova, K., Piterskaja E., eds., 2005. Женщина и возрождение шаманизма: постсоветское пространство на рубеже тысячелетий [Žena a renesancia šamanizmu: postsovietsky priestor na prelome tisícročí]. Moskva: Inštitút etnológie a antropológie RAN.
Kelner, M., 2000. The Therapeutic Relationship Under Fire. In: M. Kelner, B. Wellman, B. Pescosolido, a M. Saks, eds. 2000. Complementary and Alternative Medicine - Challenge and Change. London: Routledge, Taylor and Francis, str. 79-97.
Kendall, L., 1985. Shamans, Housewives, and Other Restless Spirits: Women in Korean Ritual Life. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Lindquist, G., 2001a. The Culture of Charisma: Wielding Legitimacy in Contemporary Russian Healing. Anthropology Today, 17 (2): 3-8.
Lindquist, G., 2001b. Wizards, gurus, and energy-information fi elds: wielding legitimacy in contemporary Russian healing. Anthropology of East Europe Review, 19 (1): 16-28.
Lindguist, G., 2004. Meanings and identities. In: A. Znamenski, ed., 2004. Shamanism: Critical Concepts in Sociology (3. vol.). New York: Routledge Curzon, str. 86-114.
Levi Martin, J., Van Gunten, T., a Zablocki, B. D., 2012. Charisma, Status, and Gender in Groups With and Without Gurus. Journal for the Scientifi c Study of Religion, 51(1), str. 20-41(22).
Lewis, I. M., 1981. What is a shaman? Folk 23, str. 25-35.
MacCormack, C., 1986. The articulation of Western and traditional systems of health care. In: Chavunduka, G.L., L. Murray, eds. The Professionalization of African Medicine. Manchester: Manchester University Press, str. 151-162.
Miller, A. S. a Stark, R., 2002. Gender and Religiousness: Can Socialization Explanations Be Saved? American Journal of Sociology, 107 (6): 1399–1423.
Nissen, N., 2010. Practitioners of Western herbal medicine and their practice in the UK: Beginning to sketch the profession. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 16, str. 181-186.
Nissen, N., 2011. Challenging perspectives: women, complementary and alternative medicine, and social change. Interface: a journal for and about social movements, 3 (2): 187 – 212.
Partridge, C., 2004. The Re-enchantment of the West (vol. 1). London, New York: T & T Clark, Continuum.
Scott, J. W., 1988. The Problem of Invisibility. In: S. J. Kleinberg, ed. 1988. Retrieving Women’s History: Changing Perceptions of the Role of Women in Politics and Society. Oxford: Berg, str. 5-29.
Sointu, E. a Woodhead, L., 2008. Spirituality, Gender and Expressive Selfh ood. Journal for the Scientifi c Study of Religion, 47, str. 259-276.
Stuckrad, K., 2002. Reenchanting Nature: Modern Western Shamanism and Nineteenth Century Th ought. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 70 (4): 771-799.
Stuckrad, K., 2005. Constructions, normativities, identities: Recent studies on shamanism and neo-shamanism. Religious Studies Review, 31 (3-4): 123-128.
Svanberg, J., 2003. Schamantropologi i gränslandet mellan forskning och praktik: en studie av förhallandet mellan schamanismforskning och neoschamanism [Šamantropológia ako hranica medzi výskumom a praxou: štúdia o vzťahu medzi skúmaním šamanizmu a neošamanizmom]. Abo: Abo Akademis Förlag/Abo Akademi University Press.
Taussig, M., 1987. Shamanism, Colonialism and the Wild Man: a Study in Terror and Healing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Tedlock, B., 2005. The woman in the shaman’s body : reclaiming the feminine in religion and medicine. New York: Bantam Books.
Wallis, R., 1999. Altered States, Confl icting Cultures: Shamans, Neo-shamans and Academics. Anthropology of Consciousness 10 (2-3): 41-49.
Walraven, B., 1983. Korean shamanism. Numen, 30 (2): 240-64.
Warne, R. R., 2000. Making the Gender-Critical Turn. In: T. Jensen a M. Rothstein, eds. 2000. Secular Th eories on Religion: Current Perspectives. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, str. 249-60.
Winkelman, M., 1990. Shamans and other magicoreligious healers: A cross-cultural study of their origins, nature, and social transformations. Ethos, 18 (3): 308-52.
Woodhead, L. 2006. Why So Many Women in Holistic Spirituality?. In: K. Flanagan a P. Jupp, eds. 2006. The Sociology of Spirituality. Aldershot: Ashgate, str. 115–26 .
Woodhead, L., Heelas, P., 2000. Religions in Modern Times. An Interpretive Anthology. Oxford: Blackwell.
Znamenski, A., 2004. General introduction – adventures of the metaphor: Shamanismand shamanism studies. In: A. Znamenski, ed. 2004. Shamanism: Critical Concepts in Sociology. New York: Routledge Curzon. str. xix-ixx.
Znamenski, A., 2007. The Beauty of the Primitive: Shamanism and the Western Imagination. New York: Oxford University Press.
